Page 270
17. There --- many objections to the plan.
18. Two-thirds of the city --- in ruins.
19. The formation of paragraphs --- very important.
20. Man's happiness or misery --- in a great measure in his own hands.
CHAPTER 18
NOUNS AMD PRONOUNS
123. Words like book, table, flower and apple are “countable nouns”: they are things that
can be counted. Such nouns can have' plural forms and are used with a/an.
Words like ink, milk, gold and wisdom are “uncountable nouns”: they are things that
cannot be counted. Normally uncountable nouns do not have plural forms and cannot be
used with a/an.
Note that the following nouns are usually uncountable in English: advice, news,
information, furniture, luggage, work, business, weather, traffic, scenery, paper (= writing
material), bread. Most of these are countable in Indian languages and therefore Indian
students often wrongly use them with a/an and in the plural.
Wrong: -- He gave me an advice.
Right: -- He gave me some advice (or: a piece of advice).
Wrong: -- The sceneries here are very good.
Right: -- The scenery here is very good.
If you are thinking of one separate item or unit of an uncountable thing, you may say a
piece of/a bottle of, etc.
a piece of advice,
a piece of work,
a piece/bar of soap,
a bottle of milk
124. The use of the Possessive (or Genitive) Case should be confined to the following :-
(1) Names of living beings and personified objects; as,
The Governor's bodyguards; the lion's mane; Nature's laws; Fortune's favourite.
(2) A few stereotyped phrases; as,
For conscience' sake, for goodness' sake, at his fingers' ends, out of arm's way, the boat's
crew.
(3) Nouns of space or time denoting an amount of something; as,
A day's work, a hand's breadth, in a year's time.
125. When two nouns in the possessive case are in apposition the apostrophe with s is
added to the last only; as,
This is my uncle, the engineer's office.
My brother Harry's watch.
For thy servant David's sake.
125A. When one noun is qualified by two possessive nouns both must have the
possessive sign, unless joint possession is indicated.
The King and Queen's journey to India.
Huntley and Palmer's biscuits.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
Page 271
126. Grammarians formerly recommended that the complement of the verb to be, when it
is expressed by a pronoun, should be in the nominative case. Today the use of the
nominative form is considered extremely formal and over-correct. We usually use the
objective form.
It is me. (Rare: It is I.)
It was him.
127. The Object of a verb or of a preposition, when it is a Pronoun, should be in the
Objective form; as,
Between you and me (not I) affairs look dark.
There is really no difference between you and me.
Let you and me (not I) do it.
Please let Jack and me go to the theatre.
Her (not she), who had been the apple of his eye, he now began to regard with something
like distrust.
Him (not he), who had always inspired in her a respect which almost overcame her
affection, she now saw the object of open pleasantry.
He has given great trouble to my father and me (not I).
128. A pronoun directly after than or as is usually in the objective case unless there is a
verb after it. If a verb follows it, the nominative form is used.
He is taller than me.
Or: He is taller than I am. (More formal)
I swim better than him. Or: I swim better that he does. (More formal)
I am as tall as her.
Or; I am as tall as she is. (More formal)
The nominative form without a verb after it (e.g. 'He is taller than I') is old-fashioned.
129. A Pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in person, number and gender.
All passengers must show their tickets.
Every man must bear his own burden.
Each of the girls gave her own version of the affair.
I am not one of those who believe everything they (not I) hear.
130. In referring to anybody, everybody, everyone, anyone, each, etc., the pronoun of the
masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the context; as,
I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his studies.
What pronoun should be used to refer back to anybody, everyone, each, etc. when the sex
is not determined? Some grammarians recommend that the pronoun of the masculine
gender should be used, as there is no singular pronoun of the third person to represent
both male and female, e.g.,
Anybody can do it if he tries.
Everyone ran as fast as he could.
In present-day English, anybody, everyone, etc. are often followed by a plural pronoun
(they/them/their) except in very formal speech or writing.
Page 272
Anybody can do it if they try.
Everyone ran as fast as they could.
Each of them had their share.
131. The indefinite pronoun one should be used throughout, if used at all.
One cannot be too careful about what one (not he) says.
One cannot be too careful of one's (not his) good name.
One does not like to have one's word doubted.
One must not boast of one's own success.
One must use one's best efforts if one wishes to succeed.
Cannot one do what one likes with one's own?
It is better to change the form of the sentence than to keep on repeating one.
132. None is construed in the singular or plural as the sense may require; as,
Did you buy any mangoes?
There were none in the market.
Have you brought me a letter?
There was none for you.
When the singular equally well expresses the sense, the plural is commonly used; as,
None of these words are now current.
None of his poems are well known.
None but fools have believed it.
133. Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of; as,.
She was taller than anyone (not either) of her five sisters.
134. Each, either, and neither are distributive pronouns calling attention to the individuals
forming a collection, and must accordingly be followed by verbs in the singular.
Each of the scholars has (not have) done well.
Each of the men was (not were) paid Rs. 20.
Neither of them was invited to the party. Neither of the accusations is true.
Either of the roads leads to the railway station.
He asked whether either of the brothers was at home.
135. Be careful to use who (Nominative) and whom (Objective) correctly.
There's Mr. Dutt, who (not whom) they say is the best portrait painter in the town.
Who (not whom) they were I really cannot specify.
I was the man who (not whom) they thought was dead.
He was the man who (not whom) they determined should be the next mayor.
There are some who (not whom) I think are clever.
There are many who (not whom) we know quite well are honest.
One evening of each week was set apart by him for the reception of whosoever (not
whomsoever) chose to visit him.
Who (not whom) did you say was there?
Who (not whom) do you think she is?
They were a people whom it was not advisable to excite.
The student, whom (not who) you thought so highly of, has failed to win the first prize.
Page 273
Whom do you wish to see?
Who (not whom) do you believe him to be?
Note that today whom is not usual except in formal English. Who replaces whom in
spoken English.
Who did you meet?
Who are you going with?
This is the man who I talked about this morning.
As a relative pronoun who replaces whom only in defining clauses.
136. When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun care should be taken to see that the
verb agrees in number and person with the antecedent of the relative; as,
This is one of the most interesting novels that have (not has) appeared this year.
[The antecedent of that is novels, not one.]
He is one of the cleverest boys that have passed through the school.
One of the greatest judges that have ever lived laid this down as law.
It was one of the best speeches that have ever been made in the Parliament.
This is the only one of his poems that is (not are) worth reading.
[Here the antecedent of that is one. "Of his poems this is the only one that is worth
reading."]
137. A definite word, as the antecedent of the relative pronoun which make the sentences
easier to understand than is possible otherwise. Thus the sentence, "His foot slipped,
which caused him to fall heavily," would be easier reading, and hence better, as ;
His foot slipped, and this caused him to fall heavily.
Similarly we should say :-
I went home for my umbrella, and this (rather than which) prevented me from being in
time.
I gave him a sovereign, and this left me penniless.
He fell heavily, and this caused him great pain.
138. And which, but which - The relative itself fulfils the purpose of a conjunction; hence
no conjunction should be placed before it except to join together two relative clauses
referring to the same antecedent; as,
He possessed a sandalwood table which was of excellent workmanship, and which had
been in his family for generations.
But the following sentences are incorrect:-
He has a wardrobe of wonderful carving, and which has been in his family for
generations.
They wished me to drink with them, but which I declined.
Exercise 111
Fill in each blank with "who" or whom":-
1. I met a man today --- I had just heard was on the continent.
2. Any of you may take it; I don't care ---.
3. --- did you give that letter to?
Page 274
4. The man --- I thought was my friend deceived me.
5. There was no doubt as to --- the speaker meant.
6. The vacancy was filled by Mr. Rao --- the manager said ought to be promoted.
7. The vacancy was filled by Mr. Rao --- the manager thought worthy of promotion.
8. It is Sohrab I think is the better of the two at swimming.
9. Ali was the man they intended should be our captain next year.
10. --- do you think is the better of the two at tennis?
11. Enoch Arden, ---, his wife thought, had died many years before, suddenly reappeared.
12. The boy I trusted proved worthy of my confidence.
13. --- do you take me for?
14. --- are you speaking to?
15. --- do men declare me to be?
16. A boy --- I believed to be him just passed this way.
17. I --- am most concerned, was not consulted.
18. The man --- you wished to see is here.
19. Where is the boy about --- you were speaking?
Exercise 112
Correct the following sentences:-
1. Where are jour luggages?
2. What beautiful sceneries!
3. Can you give me an advice?
4. He has eaten two breads.
5. I have an important work to do.
6. What an awful weather!
Exercise 113
Tell which of the italicized forms is right, and give the reason:-
1. She is one of the best mothers that (has or have) ever lived.
2. You are not the first man that (has or have) been deceived by appearances.
3. One of his many good traits that (comes or come) to my mind was his modesty.
4. This is one of the things that (kills or kill) ambition.
5. Treasure Island is one of the best pirate stories that (was or were) ever written.
6. Ambition is one of those passions that (is or are ) never satisfied.
7. This is one of the songs that (was or were) most popular.
8. We lament the excessive delicacy of his ideas, which (prevents or prevent) one from
grasping them.
9. Tyranny is one of those evils which (tends or tend) to perpetuate (itself or themselves).
Exercise 114
Fill in the blanks:-
1. All failed except ---. (he, him)
2. That is a matter between you and ---. (I, me)
3. Leave Nell and --- to toil alone. (I, me)
4. It is not --- who are to blame, (we, us)
5. You and --- are invited to tea this morning. (I, me)
6. Between you and ---, he drinks heavily. (I, me)
139. Sometimes a Pronoun is inserted where it is not required; as:
The applicant, being a householder, he is entitled to a vote. (Incorrect)
Page 275
Here the pronoun he is not required.
140. A noun or pronoun in the Possessive case should not be used as the antecedant to a
relative pronoun; as,
Do not forget his enthusiasm who brought this movement so far. (Incorrect)
Change the construction to:-
Do not forget the enthusiasm of him who brought this movement so far. (Correct).
141. The relative pronoun is sometimes wrongly omitted when it is the Subject of the
clause; as,
He has an impudence would carry him through anything. (Incorrect)
Say:
He has an impudence that would carry him through anything. (Correct)
142. When the antecedent is same, the consequent should be as or that.
That is the same man that (or as) we saw yesterday. I played with the same bat that you
did.
143. Pronouns of the third person plural should not be used as antecedents to who and
that; as,
They that are whole have no need of a physician. Here those is to be preferred to they.
144. Avoid the use of same as a substitute for the personal pronoun.
When you have examined these patterns please return them (not same) to us.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
CHAPTER 19
ADJECTIVES
145. The Adjective is correctly used with a verb when some quality of the subject, rather
than of the action of the verb, is to be expressed; as,
The flowers smelt sweet (not sweetly).
She looks dainty.
That statement sounds queer.
It tastes sour.
He feels sad.
As a general rule, if any phrase denoting manner could be substituted, the adverb should
be used; but if some part of the verb to be could be employed as a connective, the
Adjective is required.
The ship appeared suddenly.
The decision appears unjust.
Page 276
His friends now began to look coldly upon him.
He looks cold.
We feel warmly on the subject.
We feel warm.
He spoke angrily.
He looked angry.
146. The plural forms these and those are often used with the singular nouns kind and
sort; as,
These kind of things.
Such a form of expression is, however, constanly heard and occurs in good writers.
Some grammarians insist that we should say:-
“This kind of things” or, better, “Things of this kind.”
147. The words, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, and posterior, take to
instead of than, as,
As a novelist Jane Austen is superior to Mrs. Henry Wood.
Hari is inferior to Rama in intelligence.
The death of King Edward VII was prior to World War I.
He is senior to me.
148. In comparing two things or classes of things the Comparative should be used ; as,
Of the two suggestions, the former is the better.
Of the two novels, this is the more interesting.
Which is the cheaper of the two?
He is the taller of the two.
This rule is, however, not strictly observed. In informal English the superlative is often
used when we talk about one of only two items. We can use best, most interesting,
cheapest and tallest in the sentences above.
149. When a comparison is instituted by means of a Comparative followed by than, the
thing compared must be always excluded from the class of things with which it is
compared, by using other or some such words; as,
He is stronger than any other man living.
[The sentence “He is stronger than any man living” suggests that the person referred to is
stronger than himself, which is of course, absurd.]
Mussolini may be said to have done more for the unity of Italy than any other man.
The Nile is said to be longer than all other rivers in the eastern hemisphere.
The Taj is more beautiful than all other mausoleums. Solomon was wiser than all other
men.
150. In a comparison by means of a Superlative, the latter term should include the
former; as,
Solomon was the wisest of all men (not all other men. )
The crocodile is the largest of all reptiles.
The Amazon is the largest of all rivers.
Of all men he is the strongest.
Page 277
151. Of any is often used incorrectly in conjunction with a Superlative; as,
He has the lightest touch of any musician.
This should be rewritten as follows:-
He has a lighter touch than any other musician.
[Or] No other musician has so light a touch.
152. A very common form of error is exemplified in the following sentence:
The population of London is greater than any city in India.
Say:
The population of London is greater than that of any city in India.
The comparison is between:
(i) the population of London and
(ii) the population of any city in India.
153. Double Comparatives and Superlatives are to be avoided, though their use was once
common in English. Thus, we have in Shakespeare-
It was the most unkindest cut of all.
The following sentence is incorrect:
Seldom had the little town seen a more costlier funeral. [Omit more] But lesser (a double
comparative) is used even by the best authors.
The lesser of the two evils.
154. Perferable has the force of a Comparative, and is followed by to. We must not say
more preferable.
He has a scheme of his own which he thinks preferable to that of any other person.
155. Less (the comparative of little) is used before uncountable nouns, while-fewer (the
comparative of few) is used before plural nouns.
However, less is also often used before plural nouns in informal English.
No fewer (or less) than fifty miners were killed in the explosion.
156. Certain adjectives do not really admit of comparison because their meaning is
already superlative; as,
Unique, ideal, perfect, complete, universal, entire, extreme, chief, full, squire, round
Do not therefore say:
Most unique, quite unique, chiefest, extremist, fullest, But we still say, for instance:
This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.
157. Older and oldest, may be said either of persons or of things, while elder and eldest
apply to persons only, and are besides, strictly speaking, confined to members of the
same family.
Gladstone was older than Morley.
He will succeed to the title in the event of the death of his elder brother.
Patricia is the eldest of the Vicar's family.
Old Farmer Giles is the oldest inhabitant in our village.
Page 278
158. The two first is a meaningless expression, for it implies that two things may be first.
We should say "the first two."
The first two chapters of the novel are rather dull. The first two boys were awarded gold
medals.
159. Few and a few have different meanings.
Few is negative, and equivalent to not many, hardly any. A few is positive, and
equivalent to some.
Few persons can keep a secret.
A few words spoken in earnest will convince him.
Similarly little = not much; a little = some, though not much.
There is little hope of his recovery.
A little tact would have saved the situation.
160. Latter is often wrongly used for last. Use latter when there are two only, last when
there are more.
Of the three, tea, coffee and cocoa, the last (not latter) is his favourite.
161. Verbal is often wrongly used for oral.
Verbal means 'of or pertaining to words'; oral means, 'delivered by word of mouth' not
written. Hence the opposite of written is oral, not verbal.
His written statement differs in several important respects from his oral (not verbal)
statement.
The lad was sent with an oral message to the doctor.
There are a few verbal differences in the two manuscripts (i.e., differences in words, not
in sense).
The photograph will give the reader a far better notion of the structure than any verbal
description.
Were your instructions oral or written?
162. Do not say 'our mutual friend.' The proper expression is 'our common friend'.
They were introduced to each other by a common (not mutual) friend.
We happened to meet at the house of a common friend.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
CHAPTER 20
VERBS
163. The subject of the sentence should not be left without a verb.
The following sentence is incorrect:
He who has suffered most in the cause, let him speak.
Recast as shown below:
Let him who has suffered most in the cause speak.
[Or] He who has suffered most in the cause should speak.
164. A verb should agree with its subject, and not with the complement ; as,
Page 279
What is wanted is (not are) not large houses with modern conveniences, but small
cottages.
The details are a matter for future consideration.
Our followers are but a handful.
165. In a compound sentence a single verb can be made to do duty for two subjects, only
when the form of the verb is such as to permit of it; as,
Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note [was heard].
But the following sentence is incorrect, because the subjects are not in the same number:
His diet was abstemious, his prayers long and fervent.
We should rewrite it as follows:
His diet was abstemious, his prayers were long and fervent.
[In a sentence like this, Mr. Fowler regards the ellipsis as permissible.]
166. Two auxiliaries can be used with one principal verb, only when the form of the
principal verb is appropriate to both the auxiliaries; as,
I never have hurt anybody, and never will.
No state can or will adopt this drastic measure.
But the following sentence is incorrect:
He never has, and never will, take such strong measures.
Rewrite it as follows:
He never has taken, and never will take, such strong measures.
167. When there is only one auxiliary to two principal verbs, it should be such that it may
be correctly associated with both; as,
Ten rioters have been sentenced, and five acquitted. But the following sentence is
incorrect:
Ten new members have been enrolled, and seven resigned.
Rewrite it as follows :
Ten new members have been enrolled and seven have resigned.
168. Carefully distinguish between the verbs lay and lie. The verb lay is transitive and is
always followed by an object; the verb lie is intransitive and cannot have an object.
Lay, laid, laid.
Lay the child down to sleep.
I laid the book on the table.
The hen has laid an egg.
Lie, lay, lain Let me lie here.
He lay under that pipal-tree.
169. An Infinitive should be in the present tense unless it represents action prior to that of
the governing verb; as,
I should have liked to go (not to have gone).
But we correctly say :-
He seems to have enjoyed his stay at Mahabaleshwar.
