1. Nothing is so easy and inviting as the retort of abuse and sarcasm but it is a paltry and
an unprofitable contest.
2. Think how mysterious and often unaccountable it is that lottery of life which gives to
this man the purple and fine linen and sends to the other rags for garments and dogs for
comforters.
3. The human mind is never stationary it advances or it retrogrades.
4. The laws of most countries today are spilt into two kinds criminal law and civil law.
5. Islam is one of the worlds Jargest religions with an estimated ] 100-1300 million
believers it was founded in the 7th centurv bv the Prophet Mohammad.
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6. There is a slavery that no legislation can abolish the slavery of caste.
7. Truly a popular error has as many lives as a cat it comes walking long after you
have imagined it effectually strangled.
8. So far from science being irreligious as many think it is the neglect of science that is
irreligious it is the refusal to study the surrounding creation that is irreligious.
9. None of Telleyrand's mots is more famous than this speech was given to man to
conceal his thoughts.
10. There is only one cure, for the evils which newly acquired freedom produces and that
cure is freedom.
11. If you read ten pages of a good book letter by letter that is to say with real accuracy
you are for evermore in some measure an educated person.
CHAPTER 27
SPELLING RULES
Final consonant
223. One-syllable words ending in single vowel + single consonant double the consonant
before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
beg + ed = begged - rob + er = robber
run + ing = running -- sad + est = saddest
but:
wish + ed = wished (two consonants)
fear + ing = fearing (two vowels)
224. Words of two or three syllables ending in single vowel + single consonant double
the final consonant if the last syllable is stressed.
begin + ing = beginning -- occur + ed = occurred
permit + ed = permitted -- control + er = controller
The consonant is not doubled if the last syllable is not stressed.
benefit + ed = benefited -- suffer + ing = suffering
These words are exceptions: worship, kidnap, handicap.
worship + ed = worshipped -- handicap + ed = handicapped
kidnap + er = kidnapper
225. In British English the consonant l is doubled, even if the stress does not fall on the
last syllabi
quarrel + ed = quarreled -- signal + ing = signalling
travel + er = traveler - distil + er = distiller
Note the exception:-
parallel + ed = paralleled
226. If the word to which the suffix ful is added ends in ll, the second l is dropped.
skill + ful = skilful -- will + ful = wilful
End and
227. Words ending in silent e drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
live + ing = living -- move + ed = moved
home + ing = homing -- drive + er = driver
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The e remains before a suffix beginning with a consonant,
hope + ful = hopeful
engage + ment = engagement
Note the exceptions:-
true + ly = truly
whole + ly = wholly
due + ly = duly
nine + th = ninth
argue + ment = argument
awe + ful = awful
228. Notice the special case of words ending in ce and ge which keep the e when adding
able and ous.
notice + able = noticeable
peace + able = peaceable
change + able = changeable
courage + ous = courageous
In such words the c and g are pronounced soft before e. Sometimes the e is retained to
avoid confusion with a similar word.
singe + ing = singeing (avoids confusion with singing)
swinge + ing = swingeing (avoids confusion with swinging)
229. Words ending in ee do not drop an e before a suffix.
see + ing = seeing
agree + ment = agreement
230. Words ending in ie change the ie to y when ing is added.
die, dying
tie, tying,
lie, lying
Final and
231. A final y following a consonant changes to i before a suffix except ing.
happy + ly = happily
carry + ed = carried
beauty + ful = beautiful
marry + age = marriage
But:
carry + ing = carrying
marry + ing = marrying
But y following a vowel does not change.
pray + ed = prayed
play + er = player
Notice a few exceptions:-
pay + ed = paid
day + ly = daily
say + ed = said
gay + ly = gaily
lay + ed = laid
ie they
232. When ie or ei is pronounced like ee in 'jeep', i comes before e except after c.
believe -- receive
relieve -- receipt
achieve -- deceive
grieve -- deceit,
yield -- conceive
field -- conceit
Some exceptions :
Seize -- protein -- counterfeit
Weird -- surfeit -- plabeian
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CHAPTER 28
THE FORMATION OF WORDS
233. Such words as are not derived or compounded or developed from other words are
called Primary Words. They belong to the original stock of words in the language.
(i) Compound Words, formed by joining two or more simple words; as, Moonlight,
nevertheless, undertake, man-of-war.
(ii) Primary Derivatives, formed by making some change in the body of the simple word;
as,
Bond from bind, breach from break, wrong from wring.
Note:- The most important class of words formed by internal change consists of the Past
Tenses of Primary Verbs, which are not usually classed as Derivatives.
(iii) Secondary Derivatives, formed by an addition to the beginning or the end; as,
unhappy; goodness.
An addition to the beginning of a word is a Prefix, an addition to he end is a Suffix.
(I) COMPOUND WORDS
234. Compound words are, for the most part, Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs.
235. Compound Nouns may be formed from:-
(1) Noun + Noun ; as,
Moonlight, chess-board, armchair, postman, railway, airman, manservant, fire-escape,
jailbird, horse-power, shoemaker, ringleader, screwdriver, taxpayer, teaspoon, haystack,
windmill.
(2) Adjective + Noun; as,
Sweetheart, nobleman, shorthand, blackboard, quicksilver, stronghold, halfpenny.
(3) Verb + Noun; as,
Spendthrift, makeshift, breakfast, telltale, pickpocket, cut-throat, cutpurse, daredevil,
scarecrow, hangman.
(4) Rounded + Noun; as,
Drawing-room, writing-desk, looking-glass, walking-stick, blotting paper, stepping-stone,
spelling-book.
(5) Adverb (or Preposition) + Noun ; as,
Outlaw, afterthought, forethought, foresight, overcoat, downfall, afternoon, bypath,
inmate, off-shoot, inside.
(6) Verb + Adverb ; as,
Drawback, lock-up, go-between, die-hard, send-off.
(7) Adverb + Verb ; as,
Outset, upkeep, outcry, income, outcome.
236. Compound Adjectives may be formed from :-
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(1) Noun+Adjective (or Participle); as,
Blood-red, sky-blue, snow-white, pitch-dark, breast-high, skin-deep, purse-proud,
lifelong, world-wide, headstrong, homesick, stone-blind, seasick, note-worthy, heart-
rending, ear-piercing, time-serving, moth-eaten, heartbroken, bed-ridden, hand-made,
sea-girl, love-lorn.
(2) Adjective + Adjective; as,
Red-hot, blue-black, white-hot, dull-grey, lukewarm
(3) Adverb + Participle; as,
Long-suffering, everlasting, never-ending, thorough-bred, well-deserved, outspoken,
down-hearted, far-seen, inborn.
237. Compound Verbs may be formed from:-
(1) Noun+Verb; as,
Waylay, backbite, typewrite, browbeat, earmark.
(2) Adjective+Verb; as,
Safeguard, whitewash, fulfil.
(3) Adverb+Verb; as,
Overthrow, overtake, foretell, undertake, undergo, overhear, overdo, outbid, outdo, upset,
ill-use.
Note:- In most compound words it is the first word which modifies the meaning of the
second. The accent is placed upon the modifying word when the amalgamation is
complete. When the two elements of the compound are only partially blended, a hyphen
is put between them, and the accent falls equally on both parts of the compound.
Exercise 123.
Explain the formation of the following compound words:-
Newspaper, football, moonstruck, turncoat, brand-new, jet-black, onlooker, soothsayer,
stronghold, ice-cold, worldly-wise, tempest-tossed, race-horse, ear-ring, cooking-stove,
over-dose, fire-proof, top-heavy, heaven-born, skin-deep, widespread, snake-charmer,
lifelong, upland.
238.
(II) PRIMARY DERIVATIVES
(1) Formation of Nouns from Verbs and Adjectives.
Verbs -- Nouns
Advise -- advice
Bear - beer
Bind -- bond
Bless -- bliss
Break -- breach
Burn -- brand
Choose -- choice
Chop -- chip
Deal -- dole
Deem -- doom
You - ditch, dike
Float -- fleet
Gape -- gap
Grid -- girth
Grieve -- grief
Live -- life
Lose -- loss
Prove -- proof
Sing -- song
Sit -- seat
Speak -- speech
Strike -- stroke
Strive -- strife
Wake -- watch
Weave -- web, woof
Adjectives -- Nouns
Dull - hidden
Hot -- heat
Proude -- pride
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(2) Formation of Adjectives from Verbs and Nouns
Verbs -- Adjectives
Float -- fleet
Lie -- low
Nouns -- Adjectives
Milk - milk
Wit -- wise
(3) Formation of Verbs from Nouns and Adjectives
Nouns -- Verbs
Bath -- bathe
Belief -- Believe
Blood -- Weed
Breath -- breathe
Bread - wide
Cloth -- clothe
Drop -- drip
Food -- feed
Glass -- glaze
Cool -- chill
House - heal
Gold -- gild
Grass -- graze
Half - half
Knot -- knit
Price -- prize
Sale -- sell
Sooth -- soothe
Tale -- tell
Thief -- thieve
Wreath -- wreathe
239. (Ill) SECONDARY DERIVATIVES
English Prefixes
A-, on, in; abed, aboard, ashore, ajar, asleep.
A-, out, from, arise, awake, alight.
Be-, by (sometimes intensive); beside, betimes, besmear, bedaub.
For-, thoroughly ; forbear, forgive.
Fore-, before ; forecast, foretell.
Gain-, against; gainsay.
In-, in ; income, inland, inlay.
Mis-, wrong, wrongly ; misdeed, mislead, misjudge.
Over-, above, beyond ; overflow, overcharge.
To-, this; to-day, to-night, to-morrow.
Un-, not; untrue, unkind, unholy.
Un-, to reverse an action ; untie, undo, unfold.
Under-, beneath, below ; undersell, undercharge, undergo, under ground.
With-, against, back ; withdraw, withhold, withstand.
Note:- There are only two prefixes of English origin that are still applied freely to new
words, mis and un, the former with the force of the adjective bad and the latter with the
force of a negative.
Latin Prefixes
Ab, (a, abs), from, away ; abuse, avert, abstract.
Ad (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, a), to; adjoin, accord, affect, aggrieve, allege,
announce, appoint, arrest, assign, attach, avail.
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Ambi (amb, am), on both sides, around; ambiguous, ambition, amputate.
Ante (anti, an), before; antedate, anticipate, ancestor.
Bene, well; benediction, benefit.
Bis, (bi, bin), twice, two; biscuit, bisect, binocular.
Circum (circu), around ; circumnavigate, circumference, circuit.
Con (col, com, cor) with, together; contend, collect, combine, correct.
Contra (counter), against; contradict, counteract, counterfeit.
De, down; descend, dethrone, depose.
Dis, (dif, di), apart; disjoin, differ, divide.
Demi, half ; demigod.
Ex (ef, e), out of; extract, effect, educe.
Extra, beyond, outside, of; extraordinary, extravagant.
In (il, im, ir, en, em), in, into; invade, illustrate, immerse, irrigate, enact, embrace.
In (il, im, ir), not; insecure, illegal, imprudent, irregular.
Inter (intro, enter), among, within; intervene, introduce, entertain.
Male (mal), ill, badly ; malevolent, malcontent.
Non, not; nonsense.
Ob (oc, of), the way of, against; object, occupy, offend.
Pen, almost; penultimate, peninsula.
By (skin), through; pervade, pellucid.
Post, after ; postscript, postdate, postpone.
Pre, before ; prefix, prevent, predict.
Preter, beyond ; preternatural.
Pro (por, pur), for; pronoun, portray, pursue.
Re, back, again ; reclaim, refund, renew, return.
Retro, backwards ; retrospect, retrograde.
Se (sed) ; apart; secede, separate, seduce, sedition.
Semi, half; semicircle, semicolon.
Sine, without; sinecure.
Sub (sue, suf, sug, sum, sup, sur, sus), under; subdue, succeed, suffer, suggest, summon,
support, surmount, sustain.
Below, beneath; subterfuge.
Super, above ; superfine, superfluous.
Trans, (tra, tres), across ; transmit, traverse, trespass.
Vice, in the place of; viceroy, vice-president.
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Greek Prefixes
A (an), without, not; atheist, apathy, anarchy.
Amphi, around, on both sides; amphitheatre, amphibious.
Ana, up, back; anachronism, analysis.
Anti (ant), against; antipathy, antagonist.
Apo (ap) from; apostate, apology.
Arch (archi) chief; archbishop, archangel, architect.
Auto, self; autocrat, autobiography, autograph.
Cata, down; cataract, catastrophe, catalogue.
Di, twice; dilemma.
Dia, through; diagonal, diameter.
Dys, badly; dyspepsia, dysentery.
En (em), in,; encyclopaedia, emblem.
Epi, upon; epilogue, epitaph.
Eu, well; eulogy, euphony, eugenics.
Ex (ec), out of; exodus, eccentric.
Hemi, half; hemisphere.
Homo (hom), like ; homogeneous, homonym.
Hyper, over, beyond ; hyperbole, hypercritical.
Hypo, under ; hypothesis, hypocrite.
Meta (met), implying change ; metaphor, metonymy.
Mono, alone, single ; monoplane, monopoly.
Pan, all; panacea, panorama, pantheism.
Para, beside, by the side of; parallel, paradox, parasite.
Peri, round ; period, perimeter, periscope.
Philo (Phil),love; philosophy, philanthropy.
Pro, before; prophesy, programme.
Syn, (sym, syl, sy),with, together; synonym, sympathy, syllable, system.
English Suffixes
OF NOUNS
(1) Denoting agent or doer
-- er (-ar, -or, -yer); painter, baker, beggar, sailor, lawyer.
-- ster ; spinster, punster, songster.
-- ter (-ther) ; daughter, father.
(2) Denoting state, action, condition, being, etc.
-- dom ; freedom, martyrdom, wisdom.
-- hood (-head); manhood, childhood, godhead.
-- lock (-ledge); wedlock, knowledge.
-- ness ; darkness, boldness, goodness, sweetness.
-- red ; kindred, hatred.
-- ship ; hardship, friendship, lordship.
-- th : health, stealth, arnwth.
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(3) Forming Diminutives.
-- el (-le) ; satchel, kernel, girdle, handle.
-- en ; maiden, kitten, chicken.
-- ie ; dearie, birdie, lassie.
-- kin ; lambkin, napkin.
-- let; leaflet.
-- ling ; duckling, darling, stripling, weakling.
- also; hillock, bullock.
OF ADJECTIVES
-- ed, having ; gifted, talented, wretched, learned.
-- en, made of; wooden, golden, woollen, earthen.
-- fid, full of; hopeful, fruitful, joyful.
-- ish, somewhat like ; boorish, reddish, girlish.
-- Jess, free from, without; fearless, shameless, hopeless, senseless, boundless.
-- ly, like ; manly, godly, sprightly.
-- some, with the quality of; wholesome, meddlesome, gladsome, quarrelsome.
-- ward, inclining to ; forward, wayward.
-- y, with the quality of; wealthy, healthy, windy, slimy, greedy, needy, thirsty, dirty.
OF VERBS
-- en, causative, forming transitive verbs; weaken, sweeten, gladden, deaden, strengthen.
-- se, to make ; cleanse, rinse.
-- er, intensive or frequentative: chatter, glitter, glimmer, fritter, flutter.
OF ADVERBS
-- ly, like ; boldly, wisely.
-- long, headlong, sidelong.
-- ward, (-wards), turning to; homeward, backwards, upwards.
-- way, (-ways); straightway, anyway, always.
-- wise, manner, mode ; likewise, otherwise.
Note:- We still feel the force of a few English suffixes. These are:-
-- er, denoting the actor or agent; as driver.
-- hood, indicating rank or condition ; as, boyhood.
-- kin. ling, diminutives, as. lambkin, vearling.
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-- ness, ship, th, indicating abstract nouns ; as, loveliness, friendship, truth.
-- en, ful, ish, less, ly, some, ward, y, adjective and adverb, endings ; as, golden, hopeful,
oldish, helpless, manly, lonesome, homeward, mighty.
Latin Suffixes OF NOUNS
(1) Denoting chiefly the agent or doer of a thing.
-- ain (-an, -en, -on) ; chieftain, artisan, citizen, surgeon.
- air, (-er, -eer, -ier, -ary); scholar, preacher, engineer, financier, missionary.
-- ate (-ee, -ey, -y) ; advocate, trustee, attorney, deputy.
-- or, (-our, -eur, -er); emperor, saviour, amateur, inteipreter.
(2) Denoting state, action, result of an action.
-- age; bondage, marriage, breakage, leakage.
-- ance (-ence); abundance, brilliance, assistance, excellence, innocence.
-- cy; fancy, accuracy, lunacy, bankruptcy.
-- ion; action, opinion, union.
-- ice (-ise) ; service, cowardice, exercise.
-- ent ; punishment, judgement, improvement.
-- mony ; parsimony, matrimony, testimony.
-- tude ; servitude, fortitude, magnitude.
-- ty ; cruelty, frailty, credulity.
-- ure ; pleasure, forfeiture, verdure.
-- y ; misery, victory.
(3) Forming diminutives.
- cule (-ule, -eel, -sel, -el, -le); animal, globule, plot, damsel, hat, circle.
-- et; owlet, lancet, trumpet.
- ette; cigarette, coquettish.
(4) Denoting place.
-- ary (-ery, -ry); dispensary, library, nunnery, treasury.
- ter (three); cloister; theater.
OF ADJECTIVES
-- al; national, legal, regal, mortal, fatal.
-- an (-ane) ; human, humane, mundane.
-- ar; familiar, regular.
-- ary; customary, contrary, necessary, ordinary, honorary.
-- ate; fortune, temperature, obstinate.
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-- ble (-ible, able) ; feeble, sensible, laughable.
-- esque; picturesque, grotesque.
-- id; humid, vivid, lucid.
- ile; servile, fragile, juvenile.
-- ine; feminine, canine, feline, divine.
-- ive; active, attentive, shortive
-- lent; corpulent, indolent, turbulent, virulent.
-- ose (ous); verbose, dangerous, onerous, copious.
OF VERBS
-- ate; assassinate, captivate, exterminate.
-- goes out; acquiesce, effervesce.
-- fy; simplify, purify, fortify, sanctify, terrify.
-- ish; publish, nourish, punish, banish.
Greek Suffixes
-- ic (-ique); angelic, cynic, phonetic, unique.
- is; artist, chemist.
-- isk; asterisk, obelisk.
-- ism (-asm); patriotism, despotism, enthusiasm.
-- ize; civilize, sympathize, criticize.
-- sis (-sy); crisis, analysis, heresy, poesy.
-- e (-y); catastrophe, monarchy, philosophy. '
Note:- We still feel the force of a number of suffixes of foreign, origin. These are :-
ee (French), added to nouns to denote, usually, the person who takes a passive share in an
action; as, employee, payee, legatee, mortgagee, trustee, referee.
or, ar, er, eer, ier, denoting a person who perfoms a certain actor function; as, emperor,
scholar, officer, engineer, gondolier.
ist, denoting a person who follows a certain trade or pursuit; as, chemist, theosophist,
artist, nihilist.
ism, forming abstract nouns; as, patriotism.
ble, forming adjectives that have usually a passive sense; as, tolerable, bearable.
ize orise, forming verbs from nouns and adjectives; as, crystallize, moralize, baptize.
Exercise 124.
(a) Give examples showing the use and meaning of the following prefixes :-
super-, trans-, con-, sub-, auto-, mis-, ante-, post-, vice-, extra-, pre-, arch-.
(b) Give examples of adjectives formed from nouns by the addition of the suffixes -en, -
ish, -less, and explain the meaning of the suffixes.
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(c) Show by the use of suffixes that we can use a single word to express the meaning of
each of the following groups of words:-
A little river, the state of being a child, to make fat, that which cannot be read, unfit to be
chosen.
(d) Give the meanings of the prefixes and suffixes in the following words:-
Incredible, antidote, anarchy, misconduct, monarch, sympathy, manhood, hillock,
archbishop, amiss, bicycle, dismantle, freshen.
(e) Form Adjectives from the following nouns:-
Circumstance, habit, stone, miser, irony, labour, circuit.
(f) Form Verbs from:-
Friend, bath, fertile, grass, clean, sweet, critic.
(g) Form Nouns from:-
Sustain, attain, confess, attach, fortify, oblige, give, cruel, hate, govern, sweet.
(h) Form Adjectives from:-
Muscle, hazard, worth, quarrel, admire, thirst, god.
(i) Add to each of the following words a prefix which reverses the meaning:-
Fortune, legible, visible, agreeable, ever, fortunate, practicable, honour, patience, sense,
truth, resolute, legal, capable, organize, credible, creditable.
(j) What is the force or meaning of the (1) Prefixes: in-, bene-, post-, dys-, dis-, (2)
Suffixes;-en, -fy, -ness, -isk, -ing IName the language from which each is derived.
(k) Mention two prefixes which denote (1) reversal of an action; (2) something good; (3)
something bad; (4) a negative.
(l) Name the primary derivatives of the following words:-
Hale, glass, high, sit, dig, strong, deep.
(m) By means of a suffix turn each of the following words into an abstract noun:-
Grand, discreet, supreme, rival, certain, warm, desolate, dense.
240. A Root is the simple element common to words of the same origin.
A few Latin Roots
Equus, equal: equal, equator, equivalent, adequate.
Ager, afield : agriculture, agrarian.
Ago, actus, I do : agent, agile, active, actor. Aus,another : alien, aliquot, alias, alibi. Amo,
I love : amiable, amateur, amorous, inimical. Angulus, a corner : angle, triangle.
Anima, life; animus, mind : animal, animate, unanimous, magnanimous, Annus, a year :
annual, biennial, perennial. Aperio, apertus, I open : aperture, April. Aqua, water :
aquatic, aquarium, aqueduct.
