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(2) Predicatively; as,
The man seems worried. (Modifying the Subject)
He kept me waiting. (Modifying the Object.)
(3) Absolutely with a noun or pronoun going before; as,
• The weather being fine, I went out.
• Many having arrived, we were freed from anxiety.
• Weather permitting, there will be a garden party at Government House tomorrow.
• God willing, we shall have another good monsoon.
• The sea being smooth, we went for sail.
• The wind having failed, the crew set to work with a will.
• His master being absent, the business was neglected.
• The wind being favourable, they embarked.
It will be seen that in each of the above sentences the Participle with the noun or pronoun
going before it, forms a phrase independent of the rest of the sentence. Such a phrase is
called an Absolute Phrase; and a noun or pronoun so used with a participle is called a
Nominative Absolute.
269. An Absolute Phrase can be easily changed into a subordinate clause; as,
Spring advancing, the swallows appear. [When spring advances. -Clause of Time.]
The sea being smooth, we went for a sail. [Because the sea was smooth. - Clause of
Reason.]
God willing, we shall meet again. [If God is willing. - Clause of Condition.]
Errors in the Use of Participles
270.Since the participle is a verb-adjective it must be attached to some noun or pronoun;
in other words, it must always have a proper 'subject of reference'.
The following sentences are incorrect because in each case the Participle is left without
proper agreement:
1. Standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him. (As it is, the sentence reads as if the
scorpion was standing at the gate.)
2. Going up the hill, an old temple was seen.
3. Entering the room, the light was quite dazzling.
We should, therefore, recast these sentences as shown below:
1. Standing at the gate, he was stung by a scorpion.
Or: While he was standing at the gate, a scorpion stung him.
2. When we went up the hill, we saw an old temple.
3. Entering the room, I found the light quite dazzling.
Or: When I entered the room, the light was quite dazzling.
271. Usage, however, permits in certain cases such constructions as the following where
the participle is left without a proper 'subject of references. [The Participle in such cases
is called an Impersonal Absolute].
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Taking everything into consideration, the Magistrate was perfectly justified in issuing
those orders.
Considering his abilities, he should have done better.
Roughly speaking, the distance from here to the nearest railway station is
two miles.
It will be noticed that in the above instances the unexpressed subject is indefinite.
Thus, 'Roughly speaking' = If one speaks roughly.
272. Sometimes, as in the following examples, the Participle is understood:-
Sword (being) in hand, he rushed on the jailor.
Breakfast (having been) over, we went out for a walk.
Exercise in Grammar 51
Pick out the Participle in each of the following sentences. Tell whether it is a Present or a
Past participle, and also how it is used:-
1. Generally speaking, we receive what we deserve.
2. Having gained truth, keep truth.
3. I saw the storm approaching.
4. Hearing a noise, I turned round.
5. Considering the facts, he received scant justice.
6. The enemy, beaten at every point, fled from the field.
7. Being dissatisfied, he resigned his position.
8. The rain came pouring down in torrents.
9. Having elected him President, the people gave him their loyal support.
10. The traveller, being weary, sat by the wood side to rest.
Exercise in Grammar 52
Pick out the Participle in each of the following sentences. Tell whether it is a Present or a
Past Participle, and also how it is used:-
1. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use.
2. Being occupied with important matters, he had no leisure to see us.
3. The children coming home from school look in at the open door.
4. Michael, bereft of his son Luke, died of a broken heart.
5. Books read in childhood seem like old friends.
6. Lessons learned easily are soon forgotten.
7. A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures (baskets) of silver.
8. Seeing the sunshine, I threw open the window.
9. Seizing him by the arm, his friend led him away.
10. Encouraged by his wife, he persevered.
11. Overcome by remorse, he determined to atone for his crime by liberality to the
church.
Exercise in Composition 53
Combine the following pairs of sentenees by making use of Participle:-
[Examples. The magician took pity on the mouse. He turned it into a cat.
= Taking pity on the mouse the magician turned it into a cat.
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The train was ready to leave the station. The people had taken their seats.
= The people having taken their seats, the train was ready to leave the station.]
1. The porter opened the gate. We entered.
2. We started early. We arrived at noon.
3. We met a man. He was carrying a load of wood.
4. The stable door was open. The horse was stolen.
5. He seized his stick. He rushed to the door.
6. The hunter took up his gun. He went out to shoot the lion.
7. A crow stole a piece of cheese. She flew to her nest to enjoy the tasty meal.
8. The wolf wished to pick a quarrel with the lamb. He said. “How dare you make the
water muddy?”
9. A passenger alighted from the train. He fell over a bag on the platform.
10. Nanak met his brother in the street. He asked him where he was going.
11. My sister was charmed with the silk. She bought ten yards.
12. The steamer was delayed by a storm. She came into port a day late.
13. He had resolved on a certain course. He acted with vigour.
14. He staggered back. He sank to the ground.
15. The letter was badly written. I had great difficulty in making out its contents.
16. They had no fodder. They could give the cow nothing to eat,
17. A hungry fox saw some bunches of grapes. They were hanging from a vine.
18. Cinderella hurried away with much haste. She dropped one of her little glass slippers.
273. Participles sometimes contain an implied meaning, which can be more fully
expressed by changing the participial phrase into a clause of:- (a) time, (b) cause, (c)
concession, or (ct) condition. [See § 269.]
(a) Having done his lesson (= after he had done his lesson), he went out to play cricket.
Walking along the street one day (= while I was walking along the street one day) I saw a
dead cobra.
(b) Being overpowered (= because he was overpowered), he surrendered.
Running at top speed (= because he ran at top speed), he got out of breath.
(c) Possessing all the advantages of education and wealth (= although he possessed all
the advantages of education and wealth), he never made a name.
(d) Following my advice (= if you follow my advice), you will gain your object.
Seven were killed, including the guard (=if the guard is included).
Exercise in Composition 54
Rewrite each of the following sentences, by changing the Participle into a Finite Verb;-
[Examples. Quitting the forest we advanced into the open plain. = We quitted the forest
and advanced into the open plain. Driven out of his country, he sought asylum in a
foreign land. [= As he was driven out of his country, he sought asylum in a foreign land.]
1. Going up the stairs, the boy fell down.
2. Having lost my passport, I applied for a new one.
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3. I once saw a man walking on a rope.
4. Walking on the roof, he slipped and fell.
5. Having no guide with us, we lost our way.
6. The stable door being open, the horse was stolen.
7. Being paralytic, he could not walk.
8. Hearing the noise, I woke up.
9. Caesar being murdered, the dictatorship came to an end.
10. Working all day, I was fatigued.
11. We met an old Sadhu walking to Benares.
12. Having come of age, his son entered into partnership with him.
13. Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts.
14. Walking up to the front door, I rang the bell.
15. Winter coming on, the grasshopper had no food.
16. Enchanted with the whole scene, I lingered on my voyage.
17. The enemy disputed their ground inch by inch, fighting with the fury of dispair.
18. Mounting his horse, the bandit rode off.
19. The policeman, running with all his speed, was scarcely able to overtake the thief.
20. Not knowing my way, I asked a policeman.
CHAPTER 30
THE GERUND
274. Read this sentence:-
Reading is his favourite pastime.
The word reading is formed from the Verb read, by adding ing.
We also see that it is here used as the Subject of a verb, and hence does the work of a
Noun. It is, therefore, a Verb-Noun, and is called a Gerund.
Further examples of Gerund:-
1. Playing cards is not allowed here.
2. I like reading poetry.
3. He is fond of hoarding money.
In sentence 1, the Gerund, like a noun, is the subject of a verb, but, like a verb, it also
takes an object, thus clearly showing that it has also the force of a verb.
In sentence 2, the Gerund, like a noun, is the object of a verb but, like a verb, it also takes
an object, thus clearly showing that it has also the force of a verb.
In sentence 3, the Gerund, like a noun, is governed by a preposition, but, like a verb, it
also takes an object.
It will be noticed that the Infinitive and the Gerund are alike in being used as Nouns,
while still retaining the power that a Verb has of governing another noun or pronoun in
the objective case.
Def.- A Gerund is that form of the verb which ends in -ing, and has the force of a Noun
and a verb.
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275. As both the Gerund and the Infinitive have the force of a Noun and a Verb, they
have the same uses. Thus in many sentences either of them may be used without any
special difference in meaning; as,
Teach me to swim.
To see is to believe.
Teach me swimming.
Seeing is believing.
To give is better than to receive.
Giving is better than receiving.
276. The following sentences contain examples of Compound Gerund forms:-
I heard of his having gained a prize. We were fatigued on account of having walked so
far. They were charged with having sheltered anarchists. He is desirous of being praised.
It will be noticed that Compound Gerund forms are formed by placing a Past Participle
after the Gerunds of have and be.
277. The Gerund of a Transitive verb has the following forms:-
Active
Present: loving
Perfect: having loved
Passive
Present: being loved
Perfect: having been loved
278. As both the Gerund and the Present Participle end in -ing, they must be carefully
distinguished.
The Gerund has the force of a Noun and a verb; it is a Verbal Noun.
The Present Participle has the force of an Adjective and a Verb; it is a Verbal Adjective.
Examples of Gerund-
He is fond of playing cricket.
The old man was tired of walking.
We were prevented from seeing the prisoner.
Seeing is believing.
Examples of Participle -
Playing cricket, he gained health.
Walking along the road, he noticed a dead cobra.
Seeing, he believed.
279. Read this sentence:
The indiscriminate reading of novels is injurious.
The reading is used like an ordinary Noun.
Notice that the is used before and of after it.
Further examples of Gerunds used like ordinary Nouns:
The making of the plan is in hand.
The time of the singing of the birds has come.
A work from S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
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A dam consented to the eating of the fruit.
The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for the gaining of
wisdom.
280. In such Compound nouns as
walking-stick
frying-pan
hunting-whip,
fencing-stick,
writing-table,
walking, frying, hunting, fencing, writing are Gerunds.
They mean ‘a stick for walking,’ ‘a pan for frying,’ ‘a whip for hunting,’ ‘a stick for
fencing,’ and ‘a table for writing.’
281. Compare the following two sentences:
1. I hope you will excuse my leaving early.
2. I hope you will excuse me leaving early.
In the first sentence the word preceding the gerund is in the possessive case, while in the
second sentence it is in the objective case. Both the sentences are correct. We can use
either the possessive case or objective case of nouns and pronouns before gerunds. The
possessive is more formal, and it is less usual in everyday speech. Here are further
examples:
We rejoiced at his/him being promoted.
I insist on your/you being present.
Do you mind my/me sitting here?
All depends on Karim's/Karim passing the exam.
I disliked the manager's/manager asking me personal questions.
The accident was due to the engine-driver's/engine-driver disregarding the signals.
Use of the Gerund
282. A Gerund being a verb-noun may be used as -
(1) Subject of a verb: as
Seeing is believing.
Hunting deer is not allowed in this country.
(2) Object of a transitive verb; as,
Stop playing.
Children love making mud castles.
I like reading poetry.
He contemplated marrying his cousin.
(3) Object of a preposition; as,
I am tired of waiting.
He is fond of swimming.
He was punished for telling a lie.
We were prevented from seeing the prisoner.
I have an aversion to fishing,
(4) Complement of a verb; as,
Seeing is believing.
What I most detest is smoking.
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(5) Absolutely; as,
Playing cards being his aversion, we did not play bridge.
Exercise in Grammar 55
Point out the Participles and Gerunds in the following sentences. In the case of the
Participle, name the noun or pronoun which it qualifies. In the case of the Gerund, state
whether it is subject, object, complement, or used after a preposition.
1. He was found fighting desperately for his life.
2. He has ruined his sight by reading small print.
3. Hearing the noise, he ran to the window.
4. We saw a clown standing on his head.
5. Asking questions is easier than answering them.
6. Waving their hats and handkerchiefs, the people cheered the king.
7. Walking on the grass is forbidden.
8. Jumping over the fence, the thief escaped.
9. The miser spends his time in hoarding money.
10. Much depends on Rama's returning before noon.
11. Amassing wealth often ruins health.
12. I was surprised at Hari's being absent.
13. We spent the afternoon in playing cards.
14. The miser hated spending money.
15. She was angry at Saroja trying to He to her.
16. Praising all alike is praising none.
17. Are you afraid of his hearing you?
18. I determined to increase my salary by managing a little farm.
19. Success is not merely winning applause.
20. The year was spent in visiting our rich neighbours.
21. Singing to herself was her chief delight.
22. He preferred playing football to studying his lessons.
23. I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word.
24. 1 cannot go on doing nothing.
CHAPTER 31
IRREGULAR VERBS
283. Verbs can be regular or irregular.
284. Regular verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding ed.
Base Form -- Past Tense -- Past Participle
Walk -- walked -- walked
laugh -- laughed -- laughed
paint -- painted -- painted
285. Irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle in a different way from
adding ed.
Base Form -- Past Tense -- Past Participle
Sit -- sat -- sat
Ring -- rang -- rung
Come -- came -- come
Cut -- cut -- cut
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We distinguish three types of irregular verbs:
(1) Verbs in which all three forms are the same
(e.g. cut - cut - cut)
(2) Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same
(eg sit - sat - sat)
(3) Verbs in which all three forms are different
(eg ring - rang - rung)
286. Below is a list of irregular verbs divided into the three types mentioned above. Some
of them can also be regular. In such cases the regular forms are also given.
Type (1) - All three forms are the same.
Base Form -- Past Tense -- Past Participle
Bet -- bet -- bet
Burst -- burst -- burst
Cost -- cost -- cost
Cut -- cut -- cut
Hit -- hit -- hit
Hurt -- hurt -- hurt
Let -- let – let
put -- put – put
Read -- read -- read
Set -- set -- set
Shut -- shut -- shut
Split - split - split
Spread -- spread -- spread
Type(2) - Two of the forms are the same.
Base Form -- Past Tense -- Past Participle
Beat -- beat -- beaten
Become -- became -- become
Bend - are - are
Bleed -- bled -- bled
Breed -- bred -- bred
Bring -- brought -- brought
Build -- built -- built
Burn -- burnt/burned -- burnt/burned
Buy -- bought -- bought
Catch --caught -- caught
Come -- came -- come
Creep -- crept -- crept
Deal -- dealt -- dealt
You - dew - dew
Dream -- dreamt/dreamed -- dreamt/dreamed
Feed -- fed -- fed
Feel -- felt -- felt
Fight -- fought -- fought
Find -- found -- found
Get -- got -- got
Hand -- hung -- hung
Have -- had -- had
Hear -- heard -- heard
Hold -- held -- held
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• Lay -- laid -- laid
• Lead -- led -- led
• Lean -- tent/leaned -- lent/leaned
• Learn -- learnt/learned -- learnt/learned
• Leap -- leapt/leaped -- leapt/leaped
• Leave -- left -- left
• Lend -- lent -- lent
• Light -- lit -- lit
• Lose -- lost -- lost
• Make -- made -- made
• Mean -- meant -- meant
• Measure - with - with
• Pay -- paid -- paid
• Run -- ran -- run
• Say -- said -- said
• Sell -- sold -- sold
• Send -- sent -- sent
• Shine -- shone -- shone
• Shoot -- shot -- shot
• Sit -- sat -- sat
• Sleep -- slept -- slept
• Smell -- smelr/smelled -- smeit/smelled
• Speed -- sped -- sped
• Spell - spell - spell
• Spend -- spent -- spent
• Games - played / played - played / played
• Speed -- sped -- sped
• Spell -- spelt/spelled -- spelt/spelled
• Spit -- spat -- spat
• Spoil -- spoilt/spoiled -- spoilt/spoiled
• Stand -- stood -- stood
• Stick -- stuck -- stuck
• Sting -- stung -- stung
• Strike -- struck -- struck
• Sweep -- swept -- swept
• Swing -- swung -- swung
• Teach -- taught -- taught
• Tell -- told -- told
• Think -- thought -- thought
• Understand -- understood -- understood
• Win -- won -- won
• Wind -- wound -- wound
Type (3) - All three forms are different
Base Form -- Past Tense -- Past Participle
Be -- was/were -- been
Begin -- began -- begun
Bite -- bit -- bitten
Blow -- blew -- blown
Break -- broke -- broken
Choose -- chose -- chosen
Do -- did -- done
Draw -- drew -- drawn
Drink -- drank -- drunk
Drive -- drove -- driven
Eat -- ate -- eaten
Fall -- fell -- fallen
Fly -- flew -- flown
Forbid -- forbade -- forbidden
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Forget -- forgot -- forgotten
forgive -- forgave -- forgiven
freeze -- froze -- frozen
give -- gave -- given
go -- went -- gone
grow -- grew -- grown
hide -- hid -- hidden
know -- knew -- known
lie -- lay -- lain
mistake -- mistook -- mistaken
ride -- rode -- ridden
ring -- rang -- rung
rise -- rose -- risen
see -- saw -- seen
sew -- sewed -- sewn/sewed
shake -- shook -- shaken
show -- showed -- shown
shrink -- shrank -- shrunk
sing -- sang -- sung
sink -- sank -- sunk
speak -- spoke -- spoken
spring -- sprang -- sprung
steal -- stole -- stolen
stink -- stank -- stunk
swear -- swore -- sworn
swim -- swam -- swum
take -- took -- taken
tear -- tore -- torn
throw -- threw -- thrown
wake -- woke -- woken
wear -- wore -- worn
write -- wrote -- written
287. The following verbs have an alternative past participle form (ending in en), which
can only be used adjectivally.
Verb -- Usual Past Participle -- Adjectival Past Participle
Drink -- drunk -- drunken
Melt -- melted -- molten
Prove -- proved -- proven
Shave -- shaved -- shaven
Shear -- sheared -- shorn
Shrink -- shrunk -- shrunken
Sink -- sunk -- sunken
Strike -- struck -- stricken
Compare the following:
(a)
He has drunk liquor.
The iron has melted.
He has proved it.
He has shaved off his beard.
They have sheared the sheep.
The cloth has shrunk.
The ship has sunk.
The clock has struck five.
(b)
a drunken soldier
molten iron
a proven fact
a clean-shaven face
a shorn sheep
a shrunken head
a sunken ship
a grief-stricken widow
