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(3) To express a Consequence, Result, or Effect; as,
I am so tired that I cannot go on.
He bled so profusely that he died.
He was so tired that he could scarcely stand.
411. Than as a Conjunction, follows adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree;
as,
Wisdom is better than rubies (are).
I see you oftener than (I see) him.
I am better acquainted with the country than you are.
I would rather suffer than that you should want.
412. Lest is used as a Subordinating Conjunction expressing a negative purpose, and is
equivalent to in order that…..not', 'for fear that'; as,
Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty.
Do not be idle, lest you come to want.
He fled lest he should be killed.
I was alarmed lest we should be wrecked.
(Note:- Lest is rare in modern English.)
Note:- The modem idiomatic construction after lest is should. After certain expressions
denoting fear or apprehension, lest was used as equivalent to that; as,
I feared lest 1 might anger thee.
413. While is used to mean:-
(1) During the time that, as long as; as,
While he was sleeping, an enemy sowed tares. While there is life there is hope.
(2) At the same time that; as,
The girls sang while the boys played. While he found fault, he also praised.
(3) Whereas; as,
While I have no money to spend, you have nothing to spend on. White this is true of
some, it is not true of all.
414. Only, as a Conjunction, means except that, but, were it not (that); as,
A very pretty woman, only she squints a little.
The day is pleasant, only rather cold.
He does well, only that he is nervous at the start.
I would go with you, only I have no money.
415. Except was once in good use as a Conjunction; as,
Except (= unless) ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.
Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God.
In modem English its place has been taken by unless.
416. Without:- The use of without as a Conjunction meaning unless is now bad English ;
as,
I shall not go without you do.
417. Because, for, since.- Of these three conjunctions, because denotes the closest causal
conjunction, for the weakest, since comes between the two.
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Exercise in Composition 100
Fill the blanks with Conjunctions:-
1. I am in the right, ---- you are in the wrong.
2. The most exquisite work of literary art exhibits a certain crudeness and coarseness, ---
we turn to it from nature.
3. --- he had not paid his bill, his electricity was cut off.
4. There never can be prosperity in any country --- all the numerous cultivators of the soil
are permanently depressed and injured.
5. Giving up wrong pleasure is not self-sacrifice, --- self-culture.
6. Conform thyself then to thy present fortune --- cut thy coat according to thy cloth.
7. Inconsistency consists in a change of conduct --- there is no change of circumstances
which justify it.
8. The disgust felt towards any kind of knowledge is a sign that it is prematurely
presented, --- that it is presented in an indigestible form.
9. --- do the learned know what sort of mortals inhabit beyond those mountains, ---
whether they be inhabited at all.
10. His ambition was inordinate, --- he was jealous of every man of ability.
11. Just laws are no restraint upon the freedom of the good, --- the good man desires
nothing which a just law will interfere with.
12. We judge ourselves by what we feel capable of doing, --- others judge us by what we
have already done.
13. My worthy friend Sir Roger is one of those who are not only at peace with
themselves, --- beloved and esteemed by all about them.
14. The fleets of the enemy were not merely defeated, --- destroyed.
15. As long as he (William of Orange) lived, he was the guiding-star of a brave nation; ---
he died the little children cried in the street.
16. No one likes puns, alliterations, antithesis, argument and analysis better than I do ; I
sometimes had rather be without them.
17. It (the game of fives) is "the finest exercise for the body --- best relaxation for the
mind."
18. He (Omar Khayyam) abhorred hypocrisy, --- he was not too stem with the hypocrite.
19. Our proudest title is not that we are the contemporaries of Darwin, --- that we are the
descendants of Shakespeare.
20. He (Henry Bradshaw) knew more about printed books --- any man living.
21. Are you impatient with the lark --- he sings rather than talks?
22. Trust the man who hesitates in his speech and is quick and steady in action, ---
beware of long arguments and long beards.
23. Religion does not banish mirth --- only moderates and sets rules to it.
24. A man's real character will always be more visible in his household --- anywhere else.
25. grandfather was old and gray-haired, --- his heart leaped with joy whenever little
Alice came fluttering, like a butterfly, into the room.
26. He that is slow to anger is better --- the mighty,
27. --- we approached the house, we heard the sound of music.
28. The ravine was full of sand now, --- it had once been full of water.
29. The harvest truly is plenteous, --- the labourers are few.
30. A vessel that once gets a crack, --- it may be cunningly mended, will never stand
such rough usage as a whole one.
31. Give every man thy ear, --- few thy voice.
32. Virtue --- wise action lies in the mean between the two extremes of too little and too
much.
33. And God called the light Day, --- the darkness He called Night.
34. That is a good book which is opened with expectation, --- closed with profit.
A work from S. CHANB & COMPANY LTD.
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35. --- I was in Sri Lanka, I was particularly fascinated by the Coral Gardens of
Hikkaduwa.
36. The restoration crushed for a time the Puritan party, --- placed supreme power in the
hands of a libertine.
37. Of his voyage little is known, --- that he amused himself with books and with his pen.
38. --- she had given up novel writing, she was still fond of using her pen.
39. --- Addison was in Ireland, an event occurred to which he owes his high and
permanent rank among British writers.
40. --- life --- property was safe, and the poor and the weak were oppressed by the strong.
41. --- Greek and Latin, --- all Aryan languages have their peaceful words in common.
42. He was an oppressor; --- he had at least the merit of protecting his people against all
oppression except his own.
43. People travelling in a spacecraft appear to be weightless --- can move about --- there
is no gravity in space.
44. The right of self-defence is founded in the law of nature, --- is not and cannot be
superseded by the law of society.
45. Let the super structure of life be enjoyment, --- let its foundation be in solid work.
46. --- I was not a stranger to books, I had no practical acquaintance with them.
47. Poetry takes me up so entirely --- I scarce see what passes under my nose.
48. A gentleman made it a rule in reading to skip over all sentences --- he spied a note of
admiration at the end.
49. --- a fog rolled over the city in the small hours, the early part of the night was
cloudless.
50. --- I were personally your enemy, I might pity and forgive you.
Exercise in Composition 101
Fill the blanks with Conjunctions:-
1. --- somewhat pompous, he was an entertaining companion.
2. “Mr. Johnson”, said I, “I do indeed come from Scotland, --- I cannot help it."
3. The man that stands by me in trouble I won't bid him go --- the sun shines again.
4. --- you are upon Earth enjoy the good things that are here, --- be not melancholy.
5. The art of pleasing is a very necessary one to possess ; --- a very difficult one to
acquire.
6. Never maintain an argument with heat and clamour, --- you think or know yourself to
be in the right.
7. --- I am in a serious humour, I very often walk by myself in Westminster Abbey.
8. I am persuaded --- the translators of the Bible were masters of an English style much
fitter for that work --- any we see in our present writings.
9. He [Chaucer] must have been a man of most wonderful comprehensive nature, --- he
has taken into the compass of his Canterbury Tales the various manners and humours of
the whole English nation, in his age.
10. It is the common doom of man --- he must eat his bread by the sweat of his brow.
11. It is a sort of paradox, --- it is true: we are never more in danger --- when we think"
ourselves most secure.
12. I have imposed upon myself, --- I have been guilty of no other imposition.
13. One of the pleasantest things in the world is going on a journey; --- I like to go by
myself. I can enjoy society in a room; ---, out of doors, nature is company enough for me.
14. It [the game of fives] is the finest exercise for the body, --- the best relaxation for the
mind.
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15. Religion does not banish mirth --- only moderates and sets rules to it.
16. Fit words are better --- fine ones.
17. I like political changes --- such changes are made as the result, not of passion, but of
deliberation and reason.
18. Civilized man, --- let loose with the bonds of morality relaxed, is a far greater beast --
- the savage, more refined in his cruelty, more fiend-like in every act.
19. The man who eats in a hurry loses both the pleasure of eating --- the profit of
digestion.
20. Let a man sleep --- he is sleepy, --- rise --- the crow of the cock, --- the glare of the
sun rouses him from his torpor.
21. It is a great loss to a man --- he cannot laugh.
22. Impure air can never make pure blood; --- impure blood corrupts the whole system.
23. Never refuse to entertain a man in your heart --- all the world is talking against him.
24. --- you would be healthy, be good.
25. --- you have a sword --- a pen in your hand, wield --- the one --- the other in a spirit of
insolent self-reliance.
26. A regular bath in the morning, --- with very feeble and delicate subjects, has always
an invigorating effect.
27. There is no more sure sign of a shallow mind --- the habit of seeing always the
ludicrous side of things.
28. An honest hater is often a better fellow --- a cool friend; --- it is better not to hate at
all.
29. There is no virtue that Dr. Arnold laboured more sedulously to instil into young men -
-- the virtue of truthfulness.
30. The teachers of morality discourse like angels, --- they live like men.
31. Massacres --- disorders never have the way to peace.
32. Natural thirst is more deliciously gratified with water, --- artificial thirst is with wine.
33. Woman was not meant to be --- an unthinking drudge, --- the merely pretty ornament
of man's leisure.
34. The real dignity of a man lies in what he has, --- in what he is.
35. They say the Lion and the Lizard keep the Courts --- Jamshyd gloried and drank deep.
36. --- I am dead, my dearest, sing no sad songs for me.
37. --- he [Lord Beaconsfield] was ambitious, his ambition was a noble one.
38. Suffer the little children to come unto me, and forbid them not, --- of such is the
Kingdom of God.
39. Heard melodies are sweet, --- those unheard are sweeter.
40. I awoke one morning --- found myself famous.
41. --- the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch.
42. One generation passeth away and other generation cometh, --- the earth abideth for
ever.
43. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing --- to act one.
44. Let us shun extremes, --- each extreme necessarily engenders its opposite.
45. --- this be madness, --- there is method in it.
46. The heavens declare the glory of God, --- the firmanent showeth His handi work.
47. Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, --- a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit.
48. Small service is true service --- it lasts.
49. For my part, I was always bungler at all kinds of sport that required --- Patience ---
adroitness.
50. There are many truths of which the full meaning cannot be realized --- Personal
experience has brought it home.
51. He may be right --- wrong in his opinion, --- he is too clearheaded to be unjust.
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CHAPTER 42
THE INTERJECTION
418. Examine the following sentences:-
Hello! What are you doing there?
Alas! He is dead.
Hurrah! We have won the game.
Ah! Have they gone?
Oh! I got such a fright.
Hush! Don't make a noise.
Such words as Hello! Alas! Hurrah! Ah! etc. are called Interjections.
They are used to express some sudden feeling or emotion. It will be noticed that they are
not grammatically related to the other words in a sentence.
Def:- An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion.
Interjections may express-
(1) Joy; as, Hurrah! Huzza!
(2) Grief; as, alas!
(3) Surprise; as, ha! What!
(4)Approval; as, bravo!
419. Certain groups of words are also used to express some sudden feeling or emotion;
as,
Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious!
CHAPTER 43
THE SAME WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
420. The following are some of the most important words which may belong to different
parts of speech according to the way in which they are used.
Always remember that it is the function or use that determines to which part of speech a
word belongs in a given sentence.
About
Adverb. -- They wandered about in sheepskins and goatskins.
Preposition. -- There is Something pleasing about him.
Above
Adverb. -- The heavens are above.
Preposition. -- The moral law is above the civil.
Adjective. -- Analyse the above sentence.
Noun. -- Our blessings come from above.
After
Adverb. -- They arrived soon after.
Preposition. -- He takes after his father.
Adjective. -- After ages shall sing his glory.
Conjunction. -- We went away after they had left.
All
Adjective. -- All men are mortal. It was all profit and no loss.
Adverb. -- He was all alone when I saw him.
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Pronoun. -- All spoke in his favour.
Noun. -- He lost his all in speculation.
Any
Adjective. -- Are there any witnesses present?
Pronoun. -- Does any of you know anything about it?
Adverb. -- Is that any better?
As
Adverb. -- We walked as fast as we could.
Conjunction. -- As he was poor I helped him.
Refat. Pron. -- She likes the same colour as I do.
Before
Adverb. -- I have seen you before.
Preposition. -- He came before the appointed time.
Conjunction. -- He went away before I came.
Better
Adjective. -- I think yours is a better plan.
Adverb. -- I know better.
Noun. -- Give place to your betters.
Verb. -- The boxes with which he provided me bettered the sample - Froude.
Both
Adjective. -- You cannot have it both ways.
Pronoun. -- Both of them are dead.
Conjunction. -- Both the cashier and the accountant are Hindus.
But
Adverb. -- It is but (- only) right to admit our faults.
Preposition. -- None but (= except) the brave deserves the fair.
Conjunction. -- We tried hard, but did not succeed.
Relat. Pronoun. -- There is no one but likes him (= who does not like him.)
Down
Adverb. -- Down went the “Royal George”.
Preposition. -- The fire engine came rushing down the hill.
Adjective. -- The porter was killed by the down train.
Noun. -- He has seen the ups and downs of life.
Verb. -- Down with the tyrant!
Either
Adjective. -- Either bat is good enough.
Pronoun. -- Ask either of them.
Conjunction. -- He must either work or starve.
Else
Adjective. -- I have something else for you.
Adverb. -- Shall we look anywhere else ?
Conjunction. -- Make haste, else you will miss the train.
Enough
Adjective. -- There is time enough and to spare.
Adverb. -- You know well enough what I mean.
Noun. -- I have had enough of this.
Even
Adjective. -- The chances are even.
Verb. -- Let us even the ground.
Adverb. -- Does he even suspect the danger.
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Except
Verb. -- If we except Hari, all are to be blamed.
Preposition. -- All the brethren were in Egypt except Benjamin.
Conjunction. -- I will not let thee go except (= unless) thou bless
For
Preposition. -- I can shift for myself.
Conjunction. -- Give thanks unto the Lord \for He is good.
Less
Adjective. -- You are paying less attention to your studies than you used to do.
A work from S. CHANB & COMPANY LTD.
Adverb. -- The population of India is less than that of China.
Noun. -- He wants Rs. 600 for that watch. He won't be satisfied with less.
Like
Adjective. -- They are men of like build and stature.
Preposition. -- Do not talk like that.
Adverb. -- like as a father pitieth his own children.
Noun. -- We shall not see his like again.
Verb. -- Children like sweets.
Little
Adjective. -- There is little danger in going there.
Noun. -- Man wants but little here below.
Adverb. -- He eats very little.
More
Adjective. -- We want more men like him.
Pronoun. -- More of us die in bed than out of it.
Adverb. -- You should talk less and work more.
Much
Adjective. -- There is much sense in what he says.
Pronoun. -- Much of it is true.
Adverb. -- He boasts too much.
Near
Adverb. -- Draw near and listen.
Preposition. -- His house is near the temple.
Adjective. -- He is a near relation.
Verb. -- The time nears.
Needs
Noun. -- My needs are few.
Verb. -- It needs to be done with care.
Adverb. -- He needs must come.
Neither
Conjunction. -- Give me neither poverty nor riches.
Adjective. -- Neither accusation is true.
Pronoun. -- It is difficult to negotiate where neither will trust.
Next
Adjective. -- I shall see you next Monday.
Adverb. -- What next?
Preposition. -- He was sitting next her.
Noun. -- I shall tell you more about it in my next.
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No
Adjective. -- It is no joke.
Adverb. -- He is no more.
Noun. -- I will not take a no.
Once
Adverb. -- I was young once.
Conjunction. -- Once he hesitates we have him.
Noun. -- Please help me for once.
One
Adjective. -- One day I met him in the street.
Pronoun. -- The little ones cried for joy.
Noun. -- One would think he was mad.
Only
Adjective. -- It was his only chance.
Adverb. -- He was only foolish.
Conjunction. -- Take what 1 have, only (= but) let me go.
Over
Adverb. -- Read it over carefully.
Noun. -- In one over he took three wickets.
Preposition. -- At thirty a change came over him.
Right
Verb. -- That is a fault that will right itself.
Adjective. -- He is the right man for the position.
Noun. -- I ask it as a right.
Adverb. -- Serves him right! He stood right in my way.
Round
Adjective. -- A square peg in a round hole.
Noun. -- The evening was a round of pleasures.
Adverb. -- He came round to their belief.
Preposition. -- The earth revolves round the sun.
Verb. -- We shall round the cape in safety.
Since
Preposition. -- Since that day I have not seen him.
Conjunction. -- Since there's no help, come, let us kiss and part
Adverb. -- I have not seen him since.
So
Adverb. -- I am so sorry.
Conjunction. -- He was poor, so they helped him.
Some
Adjective. -- We must find some way out of it.
Pronoun. -- Some say one thing and others another.
Adverb. -- Some thirty chiefs were present.
Still
Verb. -- With his name the mothers stilt their babes.
Adjective. -- Still waters run deep.
Noun. -- Her sobs could be heard in the still of night.
Adverb. -- He is still in business.
Such
Adjective. -- Don't be in such a hurry.
Pronoun. -- Such was not my intention.
That
Demonst Adjective. -- What is that noise.
Demonst Pronoun. -- That is what I want.
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Adverb. -- I have done that much only.
Relative Pronoun. -- The evil that men do lives after them.
Conjunction. -- He lives so that he may eat.
The
Def. Article. -- he cat loves comfort.
Adverb. -- The wiser he is, the better.
To
Preposition. -- Never put off till tomorrow what you can do to-day.
Conjunction. -- Do not start till I give the word.
Up
Adverb. -- Prices are up.
Preposition. -- Let us go up the hill.
Adjective. -- The next up train will leave here at 12.30.
Noun. -- They had their ups and downs of fortune.
Well
Noun. -- Let well alone.
Adjective. -- I hope you are now well.
Adverb. -- Well begun is half done.
Interjection. -- Well, who would have thought it?
What
Inter. Adjective. -- What evidence have you got?
Interjection. -- What ! you don't mean to say so?
Inter. Pronoun. -- What does he want?
Relative Pronoun. -- Give me what you can. What happened then, I do not know.
Adverb. -- What by fire and what by sword, the whole country was laid waste.
While
Noun. -- Sit down and rest a while.
Verb. -- They while away their evenings with books and games.
Conjunction. -- While a great poet, he is a greater novelist.
Why
Interro. Adverb. -- Why did you do it?
Relative Adverb. -- I know the reason why he did it.
Interjection. -- Why, it is surely Nanak!
Noun. -- This is not the time to go into the why and the wherefore of it.
Yet
Adverb. -- There is more evidence yet to be offered.
Conjunction. -- He is willing, yet unable.
Exercise in Grammar 102
What part of speech is each of the words in italics?
1. He kept the fast for a week.
2. Mohammedans fast in the month of Ramzan.
3. He is the right man in the right place.
4. God defend the right!
5. There is much truth in what he says.
6. Much cry and little wool.
7. Don't boast too much.
8. It is hard to understand.
9. Men who work hard enjoy life fully.
10. Little learning is a dangerous thing.
11. He is little known here.
12. It matters little what he says.
13. I have long thought so.
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14. It is long since we met.
15. Still waters run deep.
16. He still lives in that house.
17. That boy gives any amount of trouble.
18. Is that any better?
19. A better man than he never lived.
20. He knows better than to quarrel.
21. He spoke in a loud voice.
22. Do not speak so loud.
23. Most people think so.
24. What most annoys me is his obstinacy.
25. Some twenty boys were absent.
26. I will take some, but not all.
27. Please call me early.
28. The early bird catches the worm.
29. That can stand over.
30. Take this parcel over to the post office.
31. He has no command over himself.
32. He was only a yard off me.
33. Suddenly one of the wheels came off.
34. I must be off.
35. He told us all about the battle.
36. He lives about two miles from here.
37. Several men were standing about.
38. After the storm comes the calm.
39. The after effects of potash bromide are bad.
40. He went after I came.
41. The minstrels follow after.
42. May comes after April.
43. All fish are not caught with flies.
44. All is fair in love and war.
45. We shall lie all alike in our graves.
46. He that is warm thinks all so.
47. What is all this noise?
48. All is not lost.
49. He is all for amusement.
50. All is good in a famine.
Exercise in Grammar 103
What part of speech is each of the words in italics?
1. He is not any the worse for it.
2. A thing you don't want is dear at any price.
3. I thought as much.
4. He is as deaf as a post.
5. He got the same result as before.
6. As he was ambitious, I slew him.
7. Men fear death as children to go in the dark.
8. There is no such flatterer as a man's self.
9. He did his best.
10. I like this best.
11. He is my best friend.
12. He is but a child.
13. Fear nought but sin.
14. But for his help, 1 could not have done it.
15. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
16. But that I saw it I could not have believed it.
17. I change, but I cannot die.
18. There is no lane but has a turning.
19. The fool is busy in every one's business but his own.
20. Enough of this!
21. She sings well enough.
22. Enough is as good as a feast.
23. We have not men enough.
24. He is like his father.
25. Hike the offer.
26. Did you ever hear the like of it?
27. Do not talk like that.
28. I have heard more since.
29. This sum is more difficult.
30. More will be wanted.
31. He stood next me in class.
32. The next moment he was dead.
33. What happened next?
34. We have no money.
35. He is no better, no worse.
36. His answer was a decided no.
37. Right the wrong.
38. He is in the right.
39. He is always right.
40. Set it right.
41. Use right words.
42. Since you say so, I believe it.
43. He has been ill since yesterday.
44. He has returned home long since.
45. What was that noise?
46. He died that he might save his country.
47. What is the man that does not love his country?
48. Give him what you can.
49. What nonsense is this!
